General Features of Maori Carvings
Compiled by Thomas Hansen – Carver
The information provided here is a brief introduction about the various types of Maori carving they may come across in their trade. Inevitably questions are always asked about carvings and to have a good answer with some knowledge is always helpful. For those that are really interested, deeper levels of knowledge can be accessed with some research in books or on the net. Of course, carvers and some Maori maybe be happy to expand your understanding through oral exchange.
CLUbs & Weapons
Maori weapons were treasured by their owners. They served the owner in battle and were also personal regalia. A man of rank was not fully dressed without a weapon in his hand. No warrior moved abroad without his weapons for the simple reason that to be aware of sudden attack was the rule. Even when they slept, their weapons were within reach. A club can also be used to make points in speeches and dialogue, with flourishes of the long or short club.
Mere and Patu
Both were fashioned into a tear drop shape. Mere being made of pounamu (nephrite Jade). Patu are made in a native hardwood and sometimes whalebone (patu paraoa) and stone like onewa stone (patu onewa). As a rule, rangatira carried both patu/mere and taiaha (long club) with them when they travelled. The patu was carried thrust into the girdle of the lower garment or attached to a special war belt. The common characteristics of the short club (mere, patu) is a flat, broad blade with a rounded end made sharp enough to split the skull of a man or to cause deadly injury to the neck and ribs.
Kotiate
The kotiate is a development of the patu, with indentations cut into the side which give it the ‘violin’ shape. It was very popular amongst the rangatira (chiefs) when it came to speech-making. The name `kotiate’ literally means ‘to cut liver’ and is a weapon designed for close-quarter fighting, being able land many types of lethal blows, including snaring the opponent’s testicles in the lugs on the side. It can also catch the edge of a taiaha, thus delaying the strike and leaving the opponent open to a counterattack.
Wahaika
If you break down the name (wahaika’, you get `waha ‘(mouth) and ‘Ike’ (fish). If you look at the shape of lower jawbone on a whale it has a very similar shape to the wahaika – the mouth of the fish. Many wahaika have two figures on them, with the figure in the middle as a human form, adding mana and power. It was believed that the figure carved on the butt of the club, when held in a lowered position, could see behind the person wielding it, and was thus able to protect them from behind.
Taiaha
The taiaha is probably the best known of all the Maori weapons; in different parts of New Zealand it was also known by the names `maipi’ and `hani’. The taiaha is divided into three sections: the blade, the shaft and the proximal end. The wide blade is the striking part of the weapon called `rau’. The proximal end is made up of two upoko (heads/faces) that are intricately carved with a single long out-thrust arero (tongue). These heads/faces and tongue are intricately carved, with eyes of inlaid paua. The main use for taiaha was in battle and Maori warriors were highly skilled in using feints and passes, looking for an opening to crush the opponent’s skull. Taiaha were also used in haka, marae ceremonies and speech making.
Tewhatewha
Tewhatewha is a long-handled club shaped like an axe. The `mata ‘is where the weapon comes to a point and the `rapa’ is the broad rounded blade at the other end. It is wielded using two hands and can either be used in combat or for ceremonial use.
Adze
Toki-poutangata
The figure at the top of the adze, looking down the handle, is protectively watching the rear of the toki poutangata. This figure may represent an ancestor or an Atua (God), depending on who the adze was made for and if there was a theme surrounding the piece. The theme could be one of the many a myths and stories in Maori cosmology. The head at the bottom of the handle is called a koreke.
Traditionally, the Rangatira (Chief) of a tribe would own a toki poutangata. Other people apart from the Chief who could possess one was the tohunga (priest) or a tohunga whakairo (master carver). This type of adze would be used if a tree was cut down for making a waka (canoe) or a wharenui (meeting house). The toki poutangata would be used for the first cut of the tree felling, and then be used again at the start of the project and on completion. It could also be used in whaikōrero (giving speeches, debates, or addressing the people), using it to gesture and emphasise a point or to give more vigor to the process. It is debatable whether it was used as a weapon, though there is recording of chiefs taking them into battle alongside a weapon. They could also be used to dispatch high ranking prisoners taken captive.
Tekoteko
Tekoteko is a general name that describes any full figure, whether carved in relief or three-dimensional. Often though, it describes the three-dimensional figure that is mounted on the apex of a wharenui (meeting house). From this position, the tekoteko observes who comes before the ancestral house in a challenging way.
In general, carvings sold in shops as souvenirs do not represent a particular ancestor, but rather are representatives of the Maori art form, some traditional and some contemporary.
A well-known carver from an earlier generation Piri Poutapu stated, “Surely you realize we do not carve our ancestors for sale. If you (want) another waka huia I will carve one for you”.
Many pieces that are carved are not ancestral but are considered to be taonga (treasure(s). The longer they remain in the family through the generations, the greater the mana (prestige) of the taonga.
Tongues
A single tongue poking straight forward is a challenge or act of defiance. A curved tongue is a sign of welcome. Two tongues can symbolize an orator. As there was no written language in pre-European times, information and knowledge was passed on orally, so a tale was contrived around the historical information to help remember large amounts of detail. Thus, one of the two tongues represented true knowledge, and the other tongue told a good story.
Hands and Fingers
The hand and finger positions on carvings can have general, well-known meanings, but sometimes, the position of the hands is designed by the carver to have his own particular meaning. In other words, his piece tells a specific story. One representation for finger positions aligns with the story of creation. To simplify the 3 stages of creation (there are many more) —The first stage is Te Kore (the Nothingness); the second stage is Te PO (the Darkness); the third stage is Te Ao Marama (the World of Light). The fingers are clasped together (Te Kore). The fingertips are touching each other (Te Po). The hands and fingers are apart (Te Ac Marama).
The number of fingers can vary from two to five, with the most common being three. There is a variety of stories as to why there are only three fingers: Tiki was the first man and only had three fingers. Nuku-wai-teko was the first man to introduce carving and he only had three fingers. Three fingers are a symbol of the Holy Trinity. There are more examples, but it could simply be that, to most, three fingers look better in the space available
Paua Eyes
Some say paua eyes were used because at nighttime they could reflect light giving the impression that the carvings were alive. Paua shell was also an abundant resource that was vibrant and attractive.
Colour
Applied colour in Maori Art was limited to the use of prepared red and blue —white clays, sooty carbon pigments, dyes from the swamp mud and various concoctions from plants. Mixed with shark oil, kōkōwai (prepared red clay colours) they formed a kind of unfixed paint that was often applied to carvings. Red is a sacred colour in Maori belief and was especially associated with the Gods and high-born people.
Manaia
A true manaia form is presented in a side-view form in both body and face. They have a bird-like face and a more human body and are considered to be spirit entities that have various roles such as messengers or guardians (kaitiaki). Birds, because they fly high in the sky close to the heavens, are often seen as messengers. In some of the esoteric Maori legends, manaia were interdimensional beings that had the ability to traverse through the twelve heavens from the house of the moving sun, down to earth. On a poupou (wall panel) it was said that the more carved manaia there were surrounding the central figure, the more mana was attributed to the person represented in the carving.
Masks
Carved Maori masks can have a variety of names describing the style of the carving form, or the function or purpose of the mask. Some common names are wheku, koruru, parata, and upoko.
Wheku is the name given to the style of mask that has long slanting eyes and more of a beak-like mouth.
Koruru is the name generally given to a mask that has round eyes, indicating that it is an owl (ruru). Koruru is also the name given to the gable mask on a wharenui (meeting house), which is the head of the ancestor the meeting house represents.
Parata is a more naturalistic style of head that can be another name for the gable mask on a wharenui, or it can be the head on the front of a waka taua (war canoe) underneath the tauihu (front carved figure head mounted on the top front of the waka).
Upoko is also a name for a naturalistic head/mask that commonly has tattoos depicting a tribal style or a particular person.
Treasure Boxes
Waka huia
Waka huia (treasure -box) are often intricately carved with a cosmological or mythological theme, or with a whakapapa (lineage) that pertains to the owner. Its purpose is to hold valuables like jade, whale bone carvings, rare hula feathers and other prized feathers etc. In early times, the waka huia was suspended from the rafters in the house to make it difficult for people to get to.
Papa hou
These have the same purpose as the waka huia but they are more of a rectangular square-edged shape that sit on a flat surface like a table. They are more common in the far north of New Zealand.
Tata
Tata (canoe bailer) are also known by other names, Tiheru and Ta wai. The bailer is made from a single piece of wood to make a large scoop with a handle, and at the base of the intricately carved tata is a face with a large mouth and small eyes.
WAKA TAUA
Waka taua (Maori war canoes) were intricately carved vessels used to transport up to a hundred people. In earlier days, waka taua were often used to transport warriors for military purposes.
Waka taua would be carved from a single tree selected from the forest and felled with great ceremony, and permission was sought from Tane-Mahuta (God of the forest) to do so. In pre-European times the tree would have been hollowed out where it fell and then transported to a more convenient place to continue the work of carving and shaping. The tall taurapa (sternpost) at the rear of the waka is (said by some) designed so that if the canoe took on too much water, it would prevent the waka from tipping completely upside down by making it float on its side, an easier position from which to upright it again. These vessels ranged from 9 meters to 30 meters in length.
Hoe (Paddle)
There are many examples of old hoe that are pre-European and are rare because of painted kowhaiwhai designs on them. The early Maori carved many waka taua (war canoes) which were central to the iwi (tribe) in terms of pride and prestige. Overtime, as canoes were used less frequently as a form of transport, those carved images and kowhaiwhai were largely transferred to the whare-nui (meeting house). which became the new center of pride and prestige. The patterns that were on the hoe are an example of how they were transferred from the paddles to be painted onto the rafters of the meeting house.
Singing Treasures
Pūtatara
The conch trumpet is a common instrument throughout the Pacific and beyond, but there are few places where a wooden mouthpiece is attached. This combining of shell and wood brings together Tangaroa (God of the Ocean and Tane-Mahuta (God of the Forest). They were typically used for signalling, but they could also be played melodically by using a dampener in the opening to vary the sound, or cross blown like a pūtōrino (flute).
Kōauau
Koauau are cross-blown flutes made from bone, wood, kelp or stone. They traditionally have three holes and sometimes five. There are legends that say the Patupaiarehe (fairy folk) were experts at playing the kōauau.
Pūtōrino
The pūtōrino is a flute that has two voices, male and female. The male voice is played as a trumpet and the female voice is played as flute. The shape of the instrument is taken from the casemoth cocoon, which in mythology houses Raukatauri, the Goddess of flute music. Matai is one of the best native timbers for making pūtōrino.
Pūrerehua
The pūrerehua is a bullroarer. Some Maori say that the players’ wairua (spirit), travels up the cord to create the sound and take the words and dreams of the player to the listeners of the world. Pūrerehua are made of stone, bone and wood and are made in a variety of sizes. The pūrerehua are made from the lighter wood, resemble the flight pattern of the moths the name was taken from. The sound can also be akin to that of a rangorango (blowfly).
Tiki
The tiki form is found throughout the Pacific and has many different stories attached to it. Tiki is a generic word used by Maori and other Polynesian cultures to depict human images. In Maori mythology, the most common story is that Tiki was the first man created by Tane. Tane was an atua (deity), one of the many sons of Sky Father Ranginui and Earth mother Papatuanuku.
There are others that say Tiki is a female. Some of the earliest Hei-tiki (hanging tiki) displayed female genitalia. People who follow this line of reasoning say that tiki should be worn by women who are wanting to conceive. In present times Hei-tiki are worn by both men and women vertically and horizontally and they put their own meaning to it, whether that be contemporary or traditional. Pretty well everyone agrees tiki is a lucky symbol/entity/being.
Hei matau (hanging hook)
The hei matau were traditionally carved from pounamu, whalebone and hardwoods. While the shape of the hook may vary, hei matau have an indelible link to personal mana (prestige) and to an ancestral lineage. Traditionally, a hei matau was passed down within a family, encompassing the passing on of mana and knowledge from its previous custodians. This could be in the form of karakia (prayers), whakapapa (ancestral lineage), and esoteric knowledge interwoven with rituals and functions associated with fishing and navigation.
Pikorua (twist, double twist, triple twist).
This is a more modern design representing the bond of friendship between people. The relationship would be considered long-lasting as the form is based on the symbol of infinity.
Tokotoko (walking stick)
A carved tokotoko can also been known as a rakau korero (talking stick). It is said that if a person attends a meeting or enters a marae with carved tokotoko in hand, it is acknowledged that theowner has the ability to speak and address whatever is being spoken about.
There is an endless variety of subject matter that can be carved on a tokotokto, but more often than not, it is the whakapapa (Tribal and family lineage) of the owner that is recorded. Because some tokotoko have this sacred knowledge and become a part of the owner’s everyday life, some people are reluctant to touch the old talking sticks after the owner has passed away.
Poupou
Poupou are large carved timber panels that line the side walls inside a carved wharenui (meeting house). They represent ancestors from the local (iwi) and their connections to other ancestors and iwi that they have a shared history with. Usually there will be identifying features in the design of the carving, eg. ancestors such as Tutanekai would have a flute, Tama-te-kapua would have stilts etc.
Pare (Lintel)
Traditionally the pare sits above the doorway leading into a wharenui (meeting house) or other important buildings. When you step through the place of entry into a whare tipuna (ancestral house), you are going through a boundary from the outer world to the inner one. It is considered that you are stepping into the body of an ancestor.
In the present day some people install a lintel above their front entrance as a guardian to protect their home.
Heru (ornamental comb)
Traditionally the heru was worn by Maori men to fasten their long hair into a top knot, or to indicated the rank of the person wearing it. They were traditionally made from either wood or whalebone. Nowadays they are worn by both women and men, and many are made from wood or beef bone.
Surface carving
Surface decoration on Maori carvings consists of organized patterns with grooves, notches and spirals, mostly created by V shaped chisels but also some curved and flat chisels. The shape and design of carving considers the blank spaces needed to accommodate the type of surface design the carver already has in mind. The designs need to be in harmony with the form. More experienced carvers can place patterns in such a way as to suggest movement and further accentuate the impression of three dimensions. There are many regional styles and meanings to these patterns and most of them refer to nature. Some examples are dog teeth, fish scales, pukeko footprints, spirals, flax bushes and spider webs.